Christianity

Most Christians think of their history as a special plan from God that reached its apex in the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus as Christ. All prior world events were thought of as preparation for his coming; all events after him are a realization of God’s plan that was revealed.

The general theme of Jesus’ teachings was the kingdom of God. He announced standards of human conduct that would exist in the lives of people who lived according to the will of God. Jesus established God’s perfection as the only standard by which personal conduct could be measured. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God had come and is coming when God chooses. Jesus emphasized the personal side of religion, referring to God as “our Father.” He supported Mosaic Law, which says humans must not kill another human being, but he went beyond it, saying humans must not even be angry with their brothers. He agreed with Mosaic Law that denounced adultery, but he disagreed with easy divorce, which in his eyes contributed to adultery. Jesus’ teachings were memorable. Ordinary people called him rabbi, “teacher.”

My thoughts are that Jesus was a very good human being who taught people to love each other and to live a good life. I think he was like the Buddha and Mohammad because he was a person who was close to god and wanted others to be the same way.

The question about the source of Jesus’ authority was of utmost importance to Jewish officials in his day. He did not quote authoritative rabbis or try to prove points by pointing to scriptures. The disciples who accompanied Jesus, both men and women, recognized his authority as coming from God. He trained twelve of these disciples to convey his teachings and healings to villages he could not immediately visit. Although Christians have selected four gospels to present their official views of Jesus as the Christ, John, the fourth gospel, offers a perspective that is somewhat different from the first three gospels. The Gospel of John presents the teachings and authority of Jesus in impressive accounts, such as those that feature the “I am” sayings, or teachings, of Jesus.

I think that Jesus was a teacher who was a threat to the Jewish religion because he taught in a way that was different from Judaism.

Judaism was a recognized, legal religion in the Roman Empire. Jews informed the Romans that Christianity was not Judaism and not legally included within Judaism. After Rome burned in 64 C.E., Nero accused Christians of starting the fire and labeled them enemies of the state. Christians accepted persecution for a period of time as an inevitable testing. Because Jesus had been tortured and crucified, how could they, who were but servants, expect to escape to the martyrdom of their master? They did not interpret persecutions to mean they were wrong, their cause was lost, or God had abandoned them. They believed that God was always in charge of history and that after a period of testing them, he would deliver them.

My thoughts are that the followers of Jesus were very strong people who valued their faith of Christianity more than they valued their lives. That period in history was extremely violent and people in the government thought there was only one way to do things – their way. Anyone who did not think like them was put to death because there was no value for human life. 

The churches in countries near the Mediterranean Sea developed a Christian canon of writings known as the New Testament, which they understood as a new covenant to amend the old covenant God made with Moses. These were the scriptures of a new people of God, called by him to believe in his Son, whom he had sent to save the world. The four gospels, or accounts of the life Jesus, overlap and supplement one another so as to give a whole picture of the various churches’ views of Jesus. The New Testament scriptures were written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. The New Testament became the special, later word of God for Christians, although they continued t read and receive guidance from the Old Testament. The Old Testament spoke of God’s covenant people, the suffering servant, and the anointed one.

I think that the new testament written by the four disciples of Jesus are their interpretation of the life of Jesus.

Two major traditions were at work within the Roman Empire. The churches at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea were basically Greek speaking. Churches at the western end of the Mediterranean Sea adopted Latin as the official language. Greek and Roman traditions were different-colored strands that knit together Christianity’s main testimony. Ethic diversity among Christians was reflected in the major traditions of the Greek and Roman churches.

The Greek orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions formalized their split in the year 1054. A controversy over doctrine and practice led a legate of Pope Leo IX to excommunicate Patriarch Cerularius. The patriarch with his council in turn excommunicated the legate. Agreement on doctrine in the two traditions ended after the seventh ecumenical council; they went their separate ways. Some attempt at cooperation was made during the Muslim threat to Constantinople, but the crusaders – mostly Catholic – did more to the Orthodox center in 1204 than did the Muslins. The sack of Constantinople left Christendom with two separate traditions.

My thoughts about this are that it was all right for the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions to split. Each group had a right to think how they wanted to think. But since the times were so violent they couldn’t split peacefully. They had to split with violence. I don’t believe that is what Jesus taught.

The object of the crusades was to place the Holy Land with its sacred places under Christians control so that pilgrims could freely visit them and carry out Christian devotion. Pope Urban II proclaimed the first crusade at a synod, an assembly of church officials, in Clermont in 1095. Several crusades were led by nobles of Europe.

The crusades generated many tales of heroism that circulated in Western Christendom, but in the process, they deepened divisions among Christians, Muslim, and Jews.

My thoughts about this are that again we have people fighting and killing each other in the name of god and religion. It doesn’t make any sense.

Another major division in Christianity, the Protestant, became distinct in the sixteenth century. The division occurred in Germany, France, and Switzerland; soon most countries of Europe had participants. England and Scotland were also deeply involved.

Forces that produced the Protestant and Reformed churches also inspired reform within the Catholic church. Because the Catholic Reformation was contemporaneous with the Protestant Reformation, it is less often discussed. The Roman Catholic church, however, reformed as it responded to challenges from individuals with exemplary holy lives. Both women and men became role models for higher Christian spirituality and morality. Although the lines between Protestants and Catholics were drawn and reinforced, Christianity had undergone a renewal of faith and morals. Members of the divided churches debated vigorously who was the real church and who had departed from it.

My thoughts about this are that it is unfortunate that the Catholics and Protestants had to argue about which one was the real church. I wish they could have just agreed to disagree and to honor their own beliefs and the beliefs of the others. Honoring the beliefs of others would have prevented all the bloodshed that happened after the crucifixion of Jesus.

Islam

Although Islam is largely unified in its own view of its historical development, Jews, Christians, and secular historians see things differently. Focusing on God’s revelation to Muhammad, Muslims believe that the central fact of Islam is the Qur’an. Aware that divine and human forces are at work in the dynamics of their faith, they deny their prophet adapted social influences from Jews and Christians. Peoples of those religions, however, were skeptical of the “revelation” that set aside their own scriptures as erroneous and antiquated.

I think that this is the same story of one group of people thinking that their religion is best and that all other religions are wrong. This is what has caused wars and death, supposedly in the name of God. I don’t understand why people do this.

Islam emerged in Arabia, specifically in the city of Mecca, in he seventh century C.E. The people in Mecca weres not Bedouins, who moved from place to place to find food and water. The Meccans were people who bought and sold what the wandering tribes had to offer. The famous Ka’bah was located in Mecca. The building possessed the Black Stone in its southeast corner, which was a symbol of divine power. The building contained some 360 idols, many of them representing forces of nature and celestial beings. The keepers of the Ka’bah were members of the Quraysh tribe. They had considerable status among Arabs due to their stewardship if this most sacred precinct.

Muhammad was born in 750 C.E. to a powerful but poor clan. His father died before he was born and his mother died when he was very young. He was an orphan and was raised by his grandfather and uncle. The time between his birth and marriage to Khadijah is vague, but it is known that he married the wealthy widow Khadijah, and this allowed him time to go outside the city to meditate among the hills.

The profundity of Muhammad’s message and the intricate implications of his revelations were carried out in acts that could be performed by the simple shepherd or his wife, warriors, merchants, scholars, and saints. Five requirements are made of all Muslims: First, they must declare in the Shahada, witness, that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his rasul, or messenger. Second, they must participate in salat, five periods of prayer each day. Third, they must pay an obligatory tax, called zakat, to the needy. Fourth, they must fast during the daylight hours in the month of Ramadan, know as sawm. Fifth, if they are able, they should make a pilgrimage to Mecca, a Hajj, once during their lifetime. These are acts even the simplest person can understand and practice; they are the five Pillars of Islam.

My thoughts about this are that the first requirement, the Shahada, that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his messenger, seems like a problem. To say that only Muhammad is the messenger of god says that no one else is as good as Muhammad, and I don’t believe that Muhammad or Jesus or the Buddha were any better than anyone else. They were just people who devoted their lives to god and to helping others. I think any human being can be as good as Muhammad if they would just devote their lives to the divine.

Muhammad died without announcing to the Muslim community who he chose as his successor. There was a lot of disagreement about who should succeed him and this caused major divisions within the Muslim community. There were various people who succeeded Muhammad but none of them were accepted by everyone. The details of the story vary somewhat between the accounts of the Shi’a, the partisans of ‘Ali, and the Sunni, the traditionalists who accept the outcome that left Mu’awiyah the next leader. ‘Ali agreed to submit the dispute between himself and Mu’awiyah to arbitration. A group, the Kharijites, seceded from ‘Ali. These people thought the community had a right to select any morally pure Muslin as caliph and that any true successor would let god settle the issue through battle. ‘Ali was assassinated in 661 and Mu’awiyah retained power. The Shi’tes hold to the institution of imam, the spiritual leader of the community, and regard ‘Ali as the first imam. Although ‘Ali had the ideal of temporal power as well as spiritual, other imams have had only spiritual power. For the Shi’a ‘Ali and those who succeeded him – not Mu’awiyah and his successors – are true imams.

The phenomenal spread of Islam beyond Arabia is one of the most rapid expansions of a religion in the history of the world. From the dates alone, it would appear this marching of Muslim armies was an idea of the first caliphs that developed after the death of Muhammad. Other sources, however, indicate Muhammad had already contemplated expeditions to the north, such as the first encounter with the Byzantine armies that led to Muslim reverses, salvaged only by the abilities of Khalid Ibn al-Walid.

My thoughts about this are that I disagree that armies should invade areas where other people live just to make those people believe the same way. Everyone should believe the way they want.

The majesty of God comes through clearly in the earliest experiences of the Muslim community. He is not only compassionate to repenting sinners and those in need, but God is also just and requires justice in believers’ conduct toward himself and fellows. Both awe and fascination are characteristic of the worship experience of Muhammad and his close companions.

My thoughts about this are that I agree that God is a compassionate God who forgives everyone. I think that people who hurt themselves and others don’t believe in a forgiving God.

Territories occupied by Muslims tended to become predominantly Muslim. The Jews and the Christians who remained firm in their faith had to make considerable sacrifices. How severe these sacrifices were depended on the time and place and the wishes of the ruler. The pattern was sometimes based on the old Arab concept of a client people; that is Jews or Christians had to place themselves under the protective custody of a strong Muslim who could guarantee them certain privileges of survival and practice in exchange for compensation.

I think these people just didn’t know how to live and let live.

There are stories of chivalry and horror on both sides of the struggle between Christians and Muslims. For example, T.A. Archer, in his account of the crusade of Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, gives both a Christian account and a Muslim account of Christians killing Muslim hostages. A Christian account says that Saladin, the Muslim leader, waited past the deadline for redeeming Turkish hostages.

Islam reached India through three different sources – conquest, immigration, and conversion. Conquest started in 712 with the Arab takeover of Sindh. Arabs and Turks continued their conquest through the centuries. But these invading armies were relatively small, and they customarily built garrison cities outside the cities of the local population.

My thoughts about this are that in the early days of Christianity and Muslim, people were ignorant of many things. They lived in fear and thought that power was the only thing that would keep them safe. That fear took the form of armies fighting what they considered the enemy because the enemy was different from them. They felt threatened by anyone who was different so they thought they had to gain power over those who were different.

China

China honors two wise ancestors, or funders of its religions. Laozi is believed to have written abut the time of the gurus of the Upanishads, possibly preceding the enlightenment of Siddhartha Guatama. Confucius is the more widely known sage, who was probably alive at the time of the Buddha. Confucius emphasized good education for government. His disciples assured him a prominent role in he life of China until the beginning of the twentieth century.

The early Chinese people believed that heaven is not radically separate from the earth. Heaven is considered yang, or female energy, and earth is yin, which is predominately male. Heaven contain living ancestors who are both yang and yin. Some philosophers believe that there are some feminine characteristics in males and some masculine characteristics in females because there must be harmony in Yang and Yin. This concept is both philosophy and religion.

Yijing (I Ching) can offer guidance in the choices available to an individual so that he or she can obtain the support of heaven and nature, or at least avoid offending them. The Yijing was an established guide for Chinese life when Daoism and Confucianism were in their formative stages.

The beginning of Daoism as a philosophy in the sixth centure B.C.E. has been attributed to the sage Laozi (Lao Tzu). Daoism has stimulated a variety of responses in its readers. Philosophers of China emphasized its teachings about going with the flow of nature rather than resisting it in artificial structures of culture. Daoism has a reputation for magic. Before the beginning of mid-twentieth century medicine, people depended on Daoist remedies that might help them heal.

Dao De Jing focuses on the harmony of opposites within the peaceful flow of the Dao. Beneath amazing changes of nature, there is a never-ending flow which is neither entirely visible nor open to full knowledge. Nevertheless, it influences the process of the changes that can be seen. The way of the Dao includes a peaceful harmony of opposites. These ideas, which were part of Chinese beliefs before Laozi lived, contain the teachings of Laozi, and are about the individual’s relationship to society and nature. Dao De Jing focuses on the harmony of opposites with the peaceful flow of the Dao. Although no one can define exactly the full dimension of the way of the universe, the Dao is the mysterious cosmic power present in all human experiences. The Dao is not only the actuality of experiences but also the potential activity of the universe unfolding itself; it is the nonbeing that gives rise to phenomenal reality. Hidden, the Dao nevertheless manifests itself to those who patiently observe and reflect. Enough can be known of the Dao that a person can choose to live in harmony with it. Those who insist on their own way or who force society into their own plan may seems to succeed for a while but inevitably the pendulum with swing the other way.

The sage, or the wise person, comes to realize that in the long run, humans can not conquer nature. For the sage, there is a certain amount of learning to accept frustrated desires and purposes, of bending to the inevitable course of events.

Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu), a champion of the Daoists, expanded on the teaching of the Dao De Jing. He also believed in nature above culture. Even the simple task of making a rack to hold a suspended bell can involve Daoism. By concentrating on their own nature-the nature of self- on the nature of a tree and on the nature of heaven that brings them together in harmony, humans turn a practical task into a Daoist experience. The government can be handled in a similar way. Shuangzi is reported to have turned down a civil service post in order to remain fee from the constraints of society, even those that carried glory and honor.

Confucianism has been the most influential philosophy of China throughout the centuries. Wherever Chinese people lived, they have been influenced by their greatest teacher, Confucius. Confucianism has sometimes been seen as more a philosophy than a religion. Other people have thought it a political science or a system of education. It has been all of these things and more.

Confucians think that Confucius had a fundamental belief that humans are by nature good. Confucius had to have a strong faith in humans to make such an assumption. He was surrounded all his life by cruel wars, unjust societies, and humans’ inhumanity to each other. Beginning with his foundational principal of human goodness, Confucius added a second principle. Humans, who are naturally good, learn best through example. A great need in human society is a model human being, a person who will set an example for others to follow. Confucius called his model person a junzi, translated to mean gentleman or superior man.

Confucius said to his students, “At fifteen I set my heart on learning; at forty I came to be free from doubts; at fifty I understood the Decree of Heaven; at sixty my ear was attuned; at seventy I followed my heart’s desire without overstepping the line.”

There are five distinct virtues or qualities in the junzi. First, humans exert their own uprightness regardless of outward circumstances. Second, humans are magnanimous, expressing forgiveness towards others. Humans are not to be ruled by laws but follow an internal principle. Third, humans are sincere in speech and action and are not a mouthpiece for hire; their word is their bond. Fourth, humans are earnest. They want to be rather than seem to be. Genuine good work replaces the mere appearance of it. Fifth, humans are benevolent, always generous in their relationships with people.

Confucius was a teacher of political philosophy and ethics. In his teachings, Confucius did not speculate much about heaven. He said, “When you have offended against Heaven, there is nowhere you can turn to in your prayers.” That statement shows reverence for heaven. He also had a reverence for worship Ancestor worship was a duty of every person in China. Confucius enjoyed participating in religious ceremonies – for him they were a necessary part of life, the basis for an orderly society.

Some philosophies challenged Confucius’ point of view. These philosophies had differing views about human nature and about the role and desirability of government. The Mohists, followers of Mozi (MO Tzu), who lived between 479 and 381 B.C.E., taught that if everyone would love one another, society would be transformed. Mozi may have been a follower of Confucianism. He had about 300 disciples. The Fajia (Fa-Chia or Legalists) school of philosophy said that human nature respects only strong laws and severe enforcement of laws. It was believed that a prince should rule by causing fear in his subjects. He must control laws, methods, and all powers of state. Confucians did not agree with the Legalists’ assessment of human nature.

Han Feizi (Han Fei Tzu) was from a noble family and he was jailed by he king of Qin. The king admired Han

Feizi’s work but had him imprisoned as a threat. Unable to plead his innocence to the Qin ruler, Han Feizi

drank poison and died. The writings he left show how his philosophy competed with that of Confucius. He

believed humans were not to be trusted. The king had to rule by a firm system of rewards and punishment.

Thesis on Zarathustra

“Zarathustra,” the story of a man who was similar to Jesus in some ways. Zarathustra left his home when he was 30 years old and lived a solitary life in the mountains for ten years. During that time he enjoyed being alone and he communicated with his spirit. Eventually, he got tired of being alone so he left the mountaintop and traveled from village to village to preach his philosophy of life to the people he met. During his travels, Zarathustra basically said that God is dead, and that man must overcome his human nature because underneath every person is the God he is looking for. He thought that god was only alive in spirit and in talk but there was no physical body that was god. He asked the question who we are in the absence of god and he thought that without god, humans are lost and don’t know where they came from or where they’re going.